M. Crocker – Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Fuels and Chemicals (2010)

Автор: M. Crocker
Название книги: Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Fuels and Chemicals
Формат: PDF
Жанр: Энергетика
Страницы: 555
Качество: Изначально компьютерное, E-book

There is increasing recognition that low-cost, high capacity processes for the conversion of biomass into fuels and chemicals are essential for expanding the utilization of carbon neutral processes, reducing dependency on fossil fuel resources, and increasing rural income. While much attention has focused on the use of biomass to produce ethanol via fermentation, high capacity processes are also required for the production of hydrocarbon fuels and chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass. In this context, this book provides an up-to-date overview of the thermochemical methods available for biomass conversion to liquid fuels and chemicals.
n addition to traditional conversion technologies such as fast pyrolysis, new developments are considered, including catalytic routes for the production of liquid fuels from carbohydrates and the use of ionic liquids for lignocellulose utilization. The individual chapters, written by experts in the field, provide an introduction to each topic, as well as describing recent research developments.
Contents
The Rationale for Biofuels
Mark Crocker and Rodney Andrews
The Rise of Petroleum
Worldwide Demand for Liquid Fuels and the Impact of Non-OECD Asia
Increasing Price and Decreasing Supply of Petroleum
Instability in Supply and Production of Petroleum
Forecast for Biofuels
Biomass as a Renewable Source of Energy
Biomass Composition
Energy Density of Biomass
Overview of Pathways for Biomass Conversion to Fuels
Comparison of Thermochemical and Biological Processes for Biomass Conversion to Fuels
Outlook
References
Energy Crops for the Production of Biofuels
Michael Montross and Czarena Crofcheck
Biorenewable Resources
Definition of Biomass
Dedicated Energy Crops
Herbaceous Energy Crops
Short-Rotation Woody Crops
Waste Biomass Resources
Biomass Characterization
Proximate and Ultimate Analysis
Heating Value
Additional Processing Characteristics
Available Land Resources
Biomass Composition and its Effect on Processing
Energy Consumption During Establishment and Production
Biomass Logistics
Biomass Crop Harvesting
Woody Crop Harvest
Harvesting of Herbaceous Energy Crops
Biomass Transportation
Storage
Summary
References
The Biorefinery Concept – Thermochemical Production of Building Blocks and Syngas
Birgit Kamm, Mirko Gerhardt and Sebastian Leiß
Introduction
The Lignocellulosic Feedstock Biorefinery
Building Blocks by Thermochemical Methods
Furfural
Levulinic acid
Hydroxymethylfurfural
Dehydration in Aqueous Milieu
Dehydration in Organic Polar Solvents
Dehydration in the Two-Phase System Water/Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Dehydration in Ionic Liquids
Dehydration Without Solvents
Sugar Alcohols
Syngas
Lactic Acid
Outlook
References
Biomass Gasification
James K. Neathery
Historical Background
Gasification Chemistry and Reaction Stages
Gasifier Stages
Overall Reaction Simplification and Air-Equivalence Ratio
Quantifying Gasifier Performance
Gasification Processes
Downdraft Gasification
Updraft Gasification
Fluidized-Bed and Transport-Reactor Gasification
Practical Issues of Gasification
Fuel Particle Size
Fuel Moisture Content
Process Control and Automation of Gasifiers
Producer-Gas Conditioning
Particulate Removal
Tar and Oil Removal
References
Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Fuels and Chemicals via the Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis Route
Gary Jacobs andBurtron H. Davis
Motivation
Syngas Derived from Biomass Gasification for Use in Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
Differences Between Co and Fe Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis Catalysts
Product Distribution Dependence on Conditions
Proposed Mechanisms, Kinetics, and Catalyst Structure–Function Properties
Conclusions
References
Bioderived Syngas to Alcohols
Adefemi Egbebi and James Spivey
Introduction
Syngas to Alcohols: Thermodynamics
Hydrogenation of CO
Hydrogenation of CO2
Side Reactions
Effect of Pressure
Catalyst Types
Methanol Synthesis
Ethanol Synthesis
Rh-based Catalysts
Modified Methanol Synthesis Catalysts (Based on Cu)
Modified Fischer–Tropsch-Type Catalysts
Modified (Sulfide and Unsulfided) Mo-based Catalysts
Mixed-Alcohol Synthesis
Conclusions
References
Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass for Energy and Fuels
A. V. Bridgwater
Introduction
Biomass Resources
Thermal Conversion Processes
Fast Pyrolysis
Principles
Reactors
Bubbling Fluid Beds
Circulating Fluid Beds and Transported Bed
Ablative Pyrolysis
Entrained Flow
Rotating Cone
Vacuum Pyrolysis
Heat Transfer in Fast Pyrolysis
Summary and Status of Reactors
Char Removal
Liquids Collection
Byproducts
Pyrolysis Liquid – Bio-Oil
Bio-Oil Characteristics
Environment, Health and Safety
Bio-Oil Upgrading
Physical Upgrading of Bio-Oil
Filtration
Emulsions
Chemical and Catalytic Upgrading of Bio-Oil
Hydrotreating
Zeolite Cracking
Gasification for Synfuels
Hydrogen
Applications of Bio-Oil
Energy Carrier
Combustion
Cofiring
Engines and Turbines
Chemicals
Chemicals in Bio-Oil
Other Potential Products
Biorefinery
Biorefinery Examples
Markets
Summary
Overall Fast-Pyrolysis System
System Components and Integration
Barriers
Conclusions
References
Chapter 8 Hydrothermal Processing of Biomass
P. E. Savage,R. B. Levine and C. M. Huelsman
Introduction
Background on Hydrothermal Processing
Properties of Water
Hydrothermal Liquefaction
Process-Variable Effects
Feedstock Composition
Nitrogen Partitioning
Reaction Atmosphere
Liquefaction Chemistry
Cellulose
Lignin
Lipids
Wastes
Aquatic Feedstocks
Outlook
Hydrothermal Gasification
Gas-Phase Reactions and Kinetics
Regimes in Hydrothermal Gasification
Low-Temperature Catalytic Gasification
High-Temperature SCWG
Hydrothermal Gasification Chemistry
Cellulose
Lignin
Protein
Interactions Between Model Compounds
Aquatic Feedstocks
Outlook
References
Lignin Utilization
Gunnar Henriksson, Jiebing Li,Liming Zhang andMikael E.
Lindstro¨m
Lignin – a Large and Incompletely Utilized Natural Resource
Structure, Properties and Biological Function of Lignin
Occurrence and Biological Function of Lignin
Monomers and Intermonolignol Bonds
Covalent Bonds Between Lignin and Polysaccharides
Physical and Chemical Properties
Biosynthesis
Reactions of Lignin During Technical Processes
Reactions During Alkaline Pulping
Reactions During Neutral and Acidic Sulfite Pulping
Reactions During Organosolv Pulping
Reactions During Bleaching of Pulp
Reactions During Acid Hydrolysis and Steam Explosion
Preparation of Technical Lignins
Precipitation of Lignin
Preparation with Ultrafiltration
Preparation of Lignosulfonates
Use of Technical Lignins in the Energy Sector
Combustion of Technical Lignins
Gasification of Lignin
Oxygen-Free Pyrolysis of Lignin
General Considerations on Converting Technical Lignin into Transportation Fuels
Pyrolysis of Technical Lignins in the Presence of Formic Acid
Other Technical Uses of Lignin
Lignosulfonates as Dispersing Agent
Manufacture of Vanillin
Soil-Improving Agent
Manufacture of Carbon Fiber
Lignin as Binder in Composite Material and Filler in Polymers
Lignin for Dust Control
References
Catalysts in Biomass Pyrolysis
Angelos A. Lappas,Eleni F. Iliopoulou andK. Kalogiannis
Introduction to Biomass Catalytic Pyrolysis
Overview of the Biomass Catalytic Pyrolysis Process
Catalyst Effects on Bio-Oil Yield and Quality
Microporous Catalysts
Mesoporous Acid Catalysts
Basic Catalytic Materials
Catalysts for Biomass Conversion to Aromatics
Recent Developments in Bio-Oil Upgrading
Zeolite Upgrading – Catalytic Cracking
Co-processing of Bio-Oil and Conventional Oil in Refinery Processes
Conclusions
References
Hydrotreating for Bio-Oil Upgrading
Maija L. Honkela,Tuula-Riitta Viljava,Andrea Gutierrez and A. Outi I. Krause
Introduction
Early Hydrodeoxygenation Studies
Hydrodeoxygenation
Sulfided CoMo and NiMo Catalysts
Noble-Metal Catalysts
Other Catalysts
Studies with Wood-Based Pyrolysis Oil Model Components
Phenol
Anisole
Guaiacols
Ketones, Aldehydes, Acids and Carbohydrates
Catalyst Comparison and Coking with Model Components and with Pyrolysis Oil
Outlook
Summary
References
Ionic Liquids for the Utilization of Lignocellulosics
Samuel A. Morton III and Laurel A. Morton
Introduction to Lignocellulosics
Ionic Liquids
Classification and Nomenclature
Synthesis and Purification
Potential Uses
Reuse, Recycle, and Stability
Toxicity and Biodegradation
Ionic Liquids and Lignocellulosics
Unrefined Lignocellulosics
Cellulose
Hemicellulose
Lignin
Conclusions (Issues that Remain to be Resolved)
References
Conversion of Cellulose to Sugars
Samar Kumar Guha,Hirokazu Kobayashi andAtsushi Fukuoka
Introduction
Structure and Properties of Cellulose
General Properties
Crystallinity Index
Degree of Polymerization
Options for Cellulose Saccharification
Cellulose Conversion
Methods for the Saccharification of Cellulose
Acidic Hydrolysis
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Thermochemical Transformation
Sub- and Supercritical Water
Catalytic Conversion of Cellulose
Solid Acid-Catalyzed Reaction
Supported Metal-Catalyzed Reaction
Other Catalytic Conversions of Cellulose
Overview of Routes for Utilization of Sugars
Utilization of Glucose
Utilization of Fructose
Utilization of Sorbitol
Conclusion
References
Conversion of Carbohydrates to Liquid Fuels
Geoffrey Akien,Long Qi and Istva ´n T. Horva ´th
Introduction
Carbohydrate-Containing Biomass
Potential Biomass-Based Liquid Fuels
Conversion of Carbohydrates to Liquid Fuels
Strategies
Methanol
Ethanol
Butanol
Methyl and Ethyl Tertiary-butyl ether
Gamma-Valerolactone
Methyl-Tetrahydrofuran
Furfural
Conclusions – Do We Have Enough?
References
Biodiesel Production and Properties
Jon H. Van Gerpen andBrian He
Introduction
Biodiesel Chemistry
Biodiesel Feedstocks
Fatty-Acid Profiles of Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production
Biodiesel Production
Effect of Catalyst
Mass-Transfer Limitations
Processing Technology
Purification of Biodiesel
High Free Fatty-Acid Feedstocks
Biodiesel Fuel Properties as Affected by Fatty-Acid Profiles of Plant Oils and Animals Fats
ASTM and EN Standards of Biodiesel Specifications
Cold-Flow Properties
Oxidative Stability
Alkyl Esters and Oxidation
Oxidation of Biodiesel
Preventing Biodiesel Deterioration
Cetane Number
Sterol Glucosides and Their Effects on Cold Soak Filtration Test
Plant Sterols
Procedure of Cold Soak Filtration Test
Summary
References
Heterogeneous Catalysts for Biodiesel Production
Jean-Philippe Dacquin,Adam F. Lee andKaren Wilson
Introduction
Current Processes for Biodiesel Production
Catalysts for Triglyceride Transesterification
Solid Base Catalysts
Solid Acid Catalysts
Catalysts for Free-Fatty-Acid Esterification
Effect of Free Fatty Acids on Biodiesel Production
Heterogeneous Catalysts for Free-Fatty-Acid Esterification
Process Considerations for Biodiesel Production
Future Perspectives and Concluding Remarks
References
Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol to Valuable Commodity Chemicals
Jorge N Beltramini andChun-Hui (Clayton) Zhou
Introduction
Selective Oxidation of Glycerol
Selective Etherification of Glycerol to Fine Chemicals and Polyglycerols
Selective Glycerol Transesterification and Esterification
Selective Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol
Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerol
Gasification of Glycerol
Concluding Remarks
References
Renewable Diesel and Jet-Fuel Production from Fats and Oils
Tom N. Kalnes,Michael M. McCall andDavid R. Shonnard
Scope of Chapter and Rationale
Overview of Hydroprocessing Chemistry
General Considerations for Commercial Production
Feedstock Selection
Process Considerations
Product Properties and Engine Performance
Life-Cycle Assessment
Fuel-Production Pathways and Inventory Data
Impact Assessment and Comprehensive Assumptions
Results and Sensitivity Analysis
Commercial Production Status and Perspectives References and Footnote
Catalytic Deoxygenation of Fatty Acids and their Derivatives for the Production of Renewable Diesel